Domitian (Titus Flavius Caesar Domitianus Augustus) (24 October 51-18 September 96) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96 CE. He was born in Rome, the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus - commonly known as Vespasian- and Flavia Dimitilla Major. He had an older sister, Domitilla the Younger, and brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus.
Decades of Civil Wars in the 1st century CE contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, and a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of 1st CE.
The Flavians, rose from obscurity to prominence in just 4 generations, under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (first 5 emperors -Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero- or the family to which they belonged). The name derives from the 2 main branches of the family: gens Julia (Julii Caesarea) and gens Claudia (Claudii Nerones).
Domitian's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. He ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at Pharsalus in 48 CE. Then he managed to go up the ladder again by marrying Tertulla, whose fortune secured the future of his son Titus Flavius Sabinus I (Domitian's grandfather).
Sabinus I amassed further wealth and equestrian status through his services as Tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). He married Vespasia Polla allying the Flavian family to the more prestigious gens Vespasia, ensuring again the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to senatorial ranks.
Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. He gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 CE, a gradual process, under Emperor Claudius. In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had enjoyed diplomatic and trading links with the Romans in the century since Julius Caesar's expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, and Roman economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age, especially in the South. Vespasian fell into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37-41 CE) and Nero (54-68).
On June 9, 68 CE, Nero committed suicide due to the growing opposition of the Senate and the army, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the 4 Emperors. The most 4 influential generals in the Roman Empire -Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian- successively aimed for imperial power. The news reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Northern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue with the plan, he decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet Galba. Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otto, then governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt and prepared to march on Rome, with intent on overthrowing Otho. Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.
Vespasian, with 4 legions at his disposal (nearly 80,000 soldiers), and his position in Judaea, posed as a great Flavian threat. Judaea position had the advantage of being nearest to the vital Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. Vespasian's brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome. Otho was defeated by Vitellius.
On July 1st, 69 CE, Vespasian took matters into his hand using the armies in Judaea and Egypt to make them declare him the new emperor of Rome. He entered into an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria, against Vitellius. A strong force drawn from Judaea and Syria legions marched on Rome, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices. Real power was concentrated in the hands of Flavian faction; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy.
Because Titus acted as co-emperor with his father, no changes in policy occurred when Vespasian died on June 23, 79 CE. Titus assured Domitian, his brother, that full partnership would soon be his, but neither tribune power nor imperial any kind was conferred upon Domitian during his reign. Because of this, Domitian openly plotted against Titus' life.
Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80 CE. Mount Vesuvius, a volcano (now in modern day Italy), erupted on August 24, 79 CE, in one of the most catastrophic volcanic eruptions in European history. It spewed forth a deadly cloud of tephra and gases to a height of 33 km/21 mi, ejecting molten rock, pulverized pumice and hot ash at the rate of 1.5 million tons per second (100,000 times the thermal energy of the Hiroshima-Nagasaki bombings). Romans settlements around were obliterated and buried underneath, the best knowing being Pompeii and Herculaneum. The following year, a fire broke out in Rome that lasted 3 days, destroying a number of important public buildings. Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property.
On September 13, 81 CE, after barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories (Central Apennines). The Sabines were divided into 2 groups after the founding of Rome. The group closer to Rome transplanted itself to the new city and united the pre-exixting citizenry, beginning a new ancestral heritage that was latinized. The 2nd group remained in its tribal state, warred against Rome, and after losing were assimilated into the Roman Republic. The Sabines, specifically, are mentioned in the Scripture as the original tribe of Abraham in Ur of the Chaldees.
During his brother's final days, Domitian displayed little sympathy to him, considering that Domitian grew without seen him since the age of 7. Also his mother and sister died early, meaning that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives. By the age of 18 nearly all of his closest relatives had died.It is obvious that his personality lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father, and he was prone to suspicious feelings and displayed an odd sense of humor. As he grew older, he preferred a solitude way of life.
Domitian, then, was more involved in making an image for himself. He was proclaimed emperor of Rome on September 13, 81 CE, granting Him tribune power, the office of Pontifex Maximus, and the titles of Augustus (venerable) and Pater Patriae (father of the country).
Later, Domitian self-proclaimed himself "Lord and God," exercising absolute political power. He believed that the emperor divine role has to encompass every aspect of daily life, guiding the Romans as cultural and moral authority. He was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously. He became personally involve in all branches of the administration. Edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public rights were rigidly enforced. His suspicious nature and exacting standards maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials. Those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favored family members.
The Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital. The seat of power was wherever the Emperor was. He toured the European provinces extensively. And for his personal use he was active in constructing many monumental buildings including Villa Domitian, a vast and sumptuous palace 20km outside Rome in the Alban Hills.
Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign. In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter. He did an impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. The goddess he worshipped the most zealously, however, was
Minerva. Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom, he made her to appear on his coinage in 4 different attested reverse types.
Foreign religions were tolerated as they did not interfere with public order, or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion. The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under Flavian dynasty. Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of his reign. He exiled the apostle John at the Isle of Patmus, in the Aegean Sea, in 95 CE. Inside a cave the apostle received a Word of prophecy (Revelation) about the New World to come from the Lord Jesus Christ himself.
Domitian was assassinated on September 18, 96 CE in a conspiracy by court officials. The Senate rejoiced and immediately following Nerva's accession as Emperor, passed "damnatio memoriae on his memory. His coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records. The people of Rome met the news of Domitian's death with indiference, but the army was much grieved. Dissatisfaction continued to loom over Nerva's reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97 CE. Members of the Praetorian Guard laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. The responsible assassins were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair. Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor, and with this decision he abdicated.
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